Effectiveness of Hepatitis B Vaccination Programs

Effectiveness of Hepatitis B Vaccination Programs Hepatitis B incurs a significant impact and burden on society worldwide and adversely affects the lives of children, adolescents and their families (Zanetti, Van Damme Shouval, 2008, p. 6266; World Health Organization [WHO], 2013; National Centre for Immunisation Research Surveillance [NCIRS], 2012, p. 2). Extensive immunisation programs are recommended to reduce the rates of hepatitis B and its economic costs on the population (WHO, 2008; Williams, 2002, p. 458). This essay will analyse hepatitis B immunisation as a health intervention strategy and the impact of associated mortality and morbidity on Australian population (NCIRS, 2012, p. 1-2). This will be done by focussing on the needs for hepatitis B immunisation and the goals of immunisation program. This will be followed by analysing the implementation of the hepatitis B vaccination programs together with their effectiveness on population health for children and families. WHO (2013) defines hepatitis B as an infectious disease in which the â€Å"hepatitis B virus (HBV)† causes the inflammation of the liver by affecting its function. The morbidity of hepatitis B has a significant impact on infants, children and adolescents (NCIRS, 2012, p. 1-2; Ni, 2011, p.2; Levy, 2012, p. 206). Studies show that hepatitis B can have a negative effect on the liver function which may lead to chronic liver condition followed by the development of cirrhosis and liver cancer (Zanetti et al., 2008, p.6267; Ni, 2011, p.2; Rots, Wijmenga-Monsuur, Luytjes, Kaaijk, Graaf, Van Der Zeijst Boog, 2010, p. 893). NCIRS (2012) stated that the rate of death related to the hepatitis B was â€Å"the tenth leading cause† of mortality worldwide due to chronic liver infection. Statistics also show that the percentage of hepatitis B disease in Australia is much lower in comparison to the other countries; however, this rate may increase because of the contribution of infected immigrants to the country (Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6266; NCIRS, 2012, p. 2; Gidding, Warlow, Maclntyre, Backhouse, Gilbert, Quinn Mclntyre, 2007, p. 8640; Levi, 2012, p. 206). The hepatitis B virus has been shown to be spread via blood and blood contaminated instruments and this impacted by different factors such as age, gender and the status of immune system (Ni, 2011, p. 1; Rots et al., 2010.p. 894, 897; Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6266). It is stated that infants and children may be affected by hepatitis B disease by being exposed to the hepatitis B antigen carrier mother directly via blood particularly at times of birth (NCIRS, 2012, p. 3; Ni, 2011, p. 2; Rots et al., 2010, p. 894; Roznovsky, Pliskova, Orsagova, Kloudova, Tvrdik, Kabieszova, Lochman, Mrazek, Hozakova Zjevikova, 2010, p. 395). Statistics showed that boys were more susceptible to hepatitis B than girls and this was attributed to a correspondingly greater number of the chronic liver infection for males later in the ir life (Ni, 2011, p. 4). Also where the immune system is considered to be compromised by HBV, it may result in more complicated health related issues (Ni, 2011, p. 4). The transmission of HBV may readily spread indirectly via blood contaminated instruments during surgery and â€Å"needle stick injuries† in clinics as well as through contact with infectious person within the family (NCIRS, 2012, p. 3; Ni, 2011, p. 2; Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6266). The hepatitis B immunisation programs sanctioned in Australia were aimed at reducing the impact and burden of hepatitis B disease on its population (Gidding et al., 2007, p. 8637). It is emphasised that the prevention of the development of hepatitis B disease is considered to be less expensive than its treatment (Levy, 2012, p. 206). Therefore, an implementation of a vaccination program could minimise the financial impact on the families as well as on the country as whole (Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6268- 6269; Levy, 2012, p. 206). There have been two programs introduced in relation of minimising hepatitis B infection namely â€Å"universal vaccination† and â€Å"school-based program† (Gidding et al., 2007, p. 8640; Rots et al., 2010, p. 897). The universal hepatitis B vaccination program was targeted at new born babies who are susceptible to infection from mothers who may carry positive antigens (Rots et al., 2010, p. 894; Levy, 2012, p. 206; Gidding et al., 2007, p. 863 7). They are considered to be the most vulnerable of all children’s age groups and the majority of them have a greater risk of having health related issues including chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and liver cancer (Ni, 2011, p. 2, 5; Rots et al., 2010, p. 894; Levy, 2012, p. 206). The other program assists in improving adolescents’ health owing to the fact that approximately two thirds of adolescents may be identified as a â€Å"high risk group† due to their unprotected sexual contacts which could result in development of hepatitis B infection (Gidding et al., 2007, p. 8638; 8640; Rots et al., 2010, p. 894; Van Herck Van Damme, 2008, p. 861). It is considered that these strategies may protect the health of children and adolescents by controlling the spread of hepatitis B from person to the person (Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6268; Ni, 2011, p. 5- 6). It has been highlighted that a number of scheduled hepatitis B vaccinations are required to be administered to children (NCIRS, 2012, p. 4- 5; Rots et al., 2010, p. 894; Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6267). It is a requirement that the first hepatitis B vaccination is essential to be provided to infants immediately â€Å"within twenty four hours after their birth† followed by a further three doses that are given every couple months till six months of their age (Rots et al., 2008, p. 894; WHO, 2013; NCIRS, 2012, p.1, 4). This schedule of vaccinations has dramatically decreased the predisposition for hepatitis B infection from their mother (Rots et al., 2008, p. 894; NCIRS, 2012, p.1, 4). However, with regards to adolescents aged between 11 and 15, the vaccination against hepatitis B is scheduled in two doses with an interval of six months between them (NCIRS, 2012, p. 5; Rots et al., 2010, p. 894). In cases where a child’s immune system is severely compromised by serious heal th diseases such as obesity or HIV, it is recommended that the administered dose of hepatitis B vaccine should be doubled (NCIRS, 2012, p. 4- 5; Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6267). To achieve maximum benefit from the vaccination the injections are to be administered in the thigh for the children up to 12 months of age, while those older than that age are required to be administered in deltoid muscle (Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6267). As the hepatitis B immunisation is usually not contraindicated with the other vaccinations it could be given to children together with the other scheduled vaccinations including diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (Rots et al., 2010, p. 894). Nevertheless, observation of the children is required due to the possible development of adverse negative reactions of the vaccines (Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6267). The effectiveness of hepatitis B vaccination programs is crucial in order to reduce the morbidity of hepatitis B disease together with related liver complications (Rots et al., 2010, p. 897). By measuring the effect of immunisation, it can be determined whether benefits are being achieved or other strategies need to be considered (Ni, 2011, p. 5). The WHO analysis of hepatitis B disease shows that the implementation of hepatitis B immunisation does have a positive effect on the future health of children and adolescents (WHO, 2013). Studies have been conducted to examine the effectivity of implemented vaccination programs along with their financial cost (Gidding et al., 2007, p. 8640; Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6268). It was found that the â€Å"universal vaccination† was highly effective when administering it to children from birth (Roznovsky et al., 2010, p. 398).However, after 10-15 years it offered little protection to the immunised children (Rots et al., 2010, p. 898; Roznov sky et al., 2010, p. 396, 398; Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6267). Studies showed that the antibodies produced in response to the hepatitis B immunisation are diminished as the adolescents age and this may lead to the development of chronic liver infection (Zanetti et al., 2008, p. 6267). In this case the â€Å"school-based programs† are necessary in terms of administering additional doses of hepatitis B vaccination that may assist in protecting child’s health in the long-term, but may be costly for society (Gidding et al., 2007, p. 8640; Rots et al., 2010, p. 898). Additionally, a financial burden may also be associated with the failure of detecting HBV either in mothers or their babies due to insufficient screening (Gidding et al., 2007, p. 8637). Unfortunately, hepatitis immunisation programs which have shown to be very effective for many decades are now in danger of being removed from government agenda (Van Herck Van Damme, 2008, p. 861). In summation, the hepatitis B vaccination programs have been very effective as reducing the incidence of disease in society. The corresponding reduction in the burden and impact on families together with reduced costs has been very beneficial. However, because of the success of the vaccination programs they no longer hold the same governmental priorities and may be reduced over time.

The Waterfall Model

The waterfall model approach in project management has gotten its name due to the cascading effect of its stages; there is a progress from a certain stage to another like in the waterfall flow. The function and management undergo different stages and step-by-step procedure wherein in a certain stage you cannot jump to the next step without completing and perfecting the previous one, the initial stage serves a prerequisite to the next stage and so on.Also in this approach, once you completed a certain level or stage you can not go back to the prior stage. There is no leaping back and overlapping allowed between different phases. The waterfall model is also referred as the linear sequential model or the software life cycle. This model has eight distinct, sequential phases which are the system viability, system plan, outline design, detail design, coding, execution, and operation and maintenance(in sequential order). Each phase also has a justification or confirmation segments.In justif ication, the result is being tested whether it fits the operation used, meaning the result is being validated. In confirmation, the system structure is being verified to know if correct operations are applied. The model enforces disciplines as it requires the prior stage be completed first before you may proceed with the next phase, as each stage has its starting and ending point and progress can be categorically recognized. This approach is valuable in information technology for the better understanding of the whole system.The operations in information technology are sequential; you cannot understand the higher phase of the system without fully understanding the basics. The output of the previous stage will be the input for the next stage. Furthermore, the model has a sequence of activities that is clear, understandable and easy to follow which makes it easy for everyone to use. In addition, it will present a more accurate project management and control because the system requires completion and perfection of a certain stage before moving on to the next.

Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Motivation in Islam among IIUM Employees Introduction Essay

Work motivation is important to encourage a worker to improve productivity and achieve organizational goals. In Islamic perspective, motivation is a form of drive that can influence humans to performance act. In work place, employers are faced with the task which is motivating employees and creating high job satisfaction among their staff. Program and policy can develop job satisfaction and motivate employees. When the employer understands the benefits of job satisfaction and motivation in the workplace, though, the investment in employee-related policies can be justified (Anderson, 2012). Therefore, researchers believe that there are relationship between job satisfaction and motivation. This paper is to study work motivation in Islam the definition of motivation in Islamic terms and how it can improve or decrease the work motivation among Muslim employees. The objective of this study is mainly focus on the elements that can contribute into work satisfaction and work motivation in an Islamic environment such as: job satisfaction, marital status, religiosity and experience, these are all the independent variables that we would like to study their effect on work motivation among IIUM staff members. Hypotheses of this study are: 1. Thos who are married may be motivated to excel the task than those who are single. 2. The more experience the person has the more motivated he became. 3. The more job satisfaction increase among workers they tend to be motivated to do the task. 4. The more religious the worker is the more he/she motivated to excel in work. Moreover, this paper is intended to answer questions: 1. How can marital status effect work motivation? 2. What is the role of religion in work motivation? 3. What is the relationship between experience and work motivation? 4. How can job satisfaction increase work motivation? Therefore, the core objectives of this paper are: 1. To find out the impact of job satisfaction on work motivation. 2. To investigate the importance of experience in work motivation. 3. To figure out the effect of marital status on work motivation 4. To determine the role of religion on work motivation 5. To answer these questions and to study the relationship between these variables and work motivation. LITERATURE REVIEW Conceptualization Motivation Motivation is derived from motive which means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals and later reinforced by motivate. Motivation literally is reasons for acting or behaving in a particular way, desire or willingness to do something (Oxford dictionaries, 2012). Mahmoud (2000) refers motivation as inner process that activates, energies, drive behavior to goal. It is what causes us to act, whether it is getting food to reduce hungry or reading book to do assignment. Motivation in this research means motivation as drive to achieve goal in work field. Therefore, this research focuses on motivation in work place. Technically, Ryan and Deci (2000) states that motivation means someone needs at least desire to inspire him or her to do some action. This person who is energized toward an end is considered motivated while if this person has no inspiration to act is considered as unmotivated. They also distinguish general types of motivation based on different goal and reasons which are intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is doing something because of internal factor for example person has interest on it or like it and want to do it while extrinsic refers to doing something because of external factor such as he or she will get salary. Fundamentally, we have to know motivation theory in order to understand motivation. The following paragraph is about motivation theories which relates to our research. Motivation Theories

Benefits And Benefits Of Creatine - 1319 Words

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